The Project Gutenberg EBook of Natural History of the Salamander, Aneides
hardii, by Richard F. Johnston and Gerhard A. Schad

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net


Title: Natural History of the Salamander, Aneides hardii

Author: Richard F. Johnston
        Gerhard A. Schad

Release Date: February 9, 2010 [EBook #31240]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAT. HIST. SALAMANDER (ANEIDES HARDII) ***




Produced by Chris Curnow, Stephen Sentoff, Joseph Cooper
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net






[Pg 573]


University of Kansas Publications
Museum of Natural History

Vol. 10, No. 8, pp. 573-585
October 8, 1959

Natural History of the Salamander, Aneides hardii
BY
RICHARD F. JOHNSTON AND GERHARD A. SCHAD

University of Kansas
Lawrence
1959

[Pg 574]


University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History
Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, Henry S. Fitch,
Robert W. Wilson

Volume 10, No. 8, pp. 573-585
Published October 8, 1959

University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas

PRINTED IN
THE STATE PRINTING PLANT
TOPEKA, KANSAS
1959
27-9040

[Pg 575]


Natural History of the Salamander,
Aneides hardii

BY

RICHARD F. JOHNSTON AND GERHARD A. SCHAD

The Sacramento Mountains Salamander, Aneides hardii (Taylor), is a plethodontid of relict distribution in the spruce-fir vegetational formation from 8500 to 9600 feet elevation in Otero and Lincoln counties, New Mexico. The salamanders on which most of this report is based were collected three, four, and six miles northeast of Cloudcroft in the Sacramento Mountains. Additional individuals were collected on the eastern slope of Sierra Blanca, 1.5 miles southwest of Monjeau Lookout, at about 9000 feet, Lincoln County, and in the vicinity of Summit Springs and Koprian Springs, 9300 feet, Capitan Mountains, Lincoln County. Certain details concerning the populations in Lincoln County will be reported elsewhere (Schad, Stewart, and Harrington, Canadian Jour. Zool., in press).

We would like to thank Mmes. Donna Schad and Lora Lee Johnston, Messrs. Robert Stewart, Frederick Harrington and Ralph Raitt, and Dr. Robert Selander for assistance in the field, Dr. W. Frank Blair and Dr. Marlowe Anderson for the use of specimens in their care, and Dr. A. Byron Leonard for the identification of the molluscan food items.

In the summer rainy season A. hardii lives in and under downed timber and under talus accumulations. Occurrence, however, seems to be partly subterranean and always local; seemingly good habitat frequently appears to lack the animals. Our observations and collections were made in July, August, and September in 1956, 1957, and 1958. Two hundred seventy-seven individuals were taken; these were measured, sexed and examined for breeding status. The food and parasite content of the guts of a few individuals was determined. Thirteen salamanders were kept for varying lengths of time in captivity. The specimens are now stored in collections at New Mexico State University, University of Texas, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, and the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas.

The primary study and collecting sites were four and six miles northeast of Cloudcroft, Otero County, at 8600 to 8800 feet in elevation.[Pg 576] Vegetation was either almost pure stands of Englemann spruce (Picea englemanni) or mixed stands of spruce, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) and white fir (Abies sp.). At each locality small oaks (Quercus) were present among the dominant conifers. Most of the salamanders found were in downed Douglas fir logs; some were taken from spruce and others from cracks in a variety of deadwood. In the less deteriorated logs the salamanders lived under the loose bark or in small cracks and chambers near the inner bark surface. In large fir logs in advanced stages of decomposition, salamanders could be found to the very centers. This kind of log was apparently highly favorable for salamanders, for it was in such sites that we found notably large numbers of the animals and most of the clutches of eggs that we collected; this kind of log is not frequently found, for its wood is saturated with water and completely punky and nearly ready for final collapse.

In winter, salamanders that spent the summer at the surface presumably move to subterranean cavities, or, at least, to sites away from winter freezing. In December, 1957, and April, 1958, four feet of snow covered our collecting sites, and the downed logs contained ice. A few logs were wet at the surfaces where sunlight hit them, but just under such melt they were icy. On May 3, 1958, snow was in isolated drifts and the centers of the logs were still icy. On May 31, and June 22, 1958, there was no ice anywhere, but no salamanders were evident. Late June is, however, around the earliest time that A. hardii emerges (Taylor, 1941).

Food and Foraging Behavior

We identified the contents of stomachs from 16 salamanders collected in 1956 and 1957; the items found in them are listed in Table 1. It is not likely that this list is complete for prey species because A. hardii eats a variety of food and probably takes prey almost indiscriminately if it is of appropriate size. The kind of food most frequently eaten was ants; they comprised almost 40 per cent of the total items. Nevertheless, less than half the stomachs contained ants; this may mean that salamanders do not make an effort to take ants over any other prey. Such foraging behavior would result in random capture of ants, and it is noteworthy that the frequency distribution of ants in stomachs suggests a Poisson distribution, a mathematical description of one kind of random distribution.

Table 1.—Numbers of Food Items Found in Stomachs of 16 Specimens of Aneides hardii

Items Individual
animals
Percentage
of total
(154)
individuals
Number of
stomachs in
which found
Mollusca      
Pupilla muscorum } 3   1.9% } 4
Gastrocapta sp.
Vallonia pulchella?   4   2.5
Arthropoda            
Arachnoida            
Arachnida   15   9.7   9
Acarina   13   8.4   3
Insecta            
Orthoptera (Ceuthophilus)   2   1.3   2
Hemiptera   1   0.6   1
Coleoptera            
adults (carabids and
  buprestids)
  8 } 30.9   7
larvae   38
Hymenoptera            
ants   62   40.2   7
wasps   2   1.3   2
Unidentified   5   3.2   5
Total   154   100.0    

Adult and larval beetles comprised about 28 per cent of the total items, but were found in only seven of the stomachs. Beetles[Pg 577] eaten were small representatives of beetle groups likely to occur in or under logs. A relatively large species of spider was found in nine stomachs; it represented only ten per cent of the items taken but was one of the most important foods when mass is considered.

Two adult salamanders not included in Table 1 were found, in the course of examination for parasites, to have empty stomachs. One was a male, and the other was a female taken from a chamber that held an egg cluster. It would not be surprising regularly to find stomachs empty in "incubating" females, but the fact is that the one other such female collected by us had a small amount of food in the gut; probably these individuals take anything that enters the egg chamber, but do not leave for active pursuit of food.

Foraging behavior of captive salamanders was observed by one of us. The salamanders were maintained in a seven-gallon aquarium, the floor of which was covered with soil, mosses, liverworts, certain flowering plants, and pieces of rotten fir log. The salamanders were placed in the terrarium in September, 1956, July, 1957, and October, 1958; one individual lived 13 months, another 14 months.[Pg 578]

A variety of natural foods was present in the soil and plant matter placed in the terrarium, and these were presumably eaten as found by the salamanders. However, the great bulk of the food used by the salamanders was introduced for them, in the form of colonies of Drosophila melanogaster in half-pint milk bottles. We tried to keep thriving colonies of flies, primarily of the mutant vestigial-winged type, present in the terrarium; in 1957 this was successful to the extent that there appeared to be a surplus of food available at all times. We did not attempt to feed the salamanders any wholly artificial food, such as ground beef.

Initially, the salamanders, although seemingly healthy and well-fed, were not fat. Those that we maintained on a presumably minimal diet remained slender and did not grow in length. Two individuals captured in 1957, however, were maintained on food in excess, and these grew in length and in girth; from an initial size of about 37 mm. snout-vent length (a subadult size) they attained about 45 mm. snout-vent length (an adult size) in a period of five months. The observations on foraging behavior were made primarily on these latter individuals.

The salamanders captured prey by pursuit. A salamander would pursue a fly until it was caught, or until it moved out of the field of action. The salamanders were attracted by movements of flies, and ignored those that were completely quiet; predation was oriented almost wholly on a visual basis. Once they were within 2 to 4 mm. of a fly they would snap out the tongue to secure the fly; they were successful in capturing vestigial-winged flies in about 75 per cent of all tries. The relative success of capture was greater when the animals were fresh from the field and less after they had become fattened. The vigor of their pursuit also decreased noticeably once they became fat. About two days after any new fly colony was placed in the terrarium, a salamander would take up a position just inside the lip of the milk bottle, which was placed on its side. From this vantage point the salamanders took heavy toll of the fly populations, eating both adults and larvae.

Initially the salamanders foraged indiscriminately in daylight or in darkness. Later, as they became fat, they avoided high light intensity and were active only at night or under artificial light of low intensity. The latter pattern of activity is probably typical of the pattern they maintain under natural conditions. Certainly we never saw individuals abroad in daylight at Cloudcroft, yet under favorable environmental conditions they were to be found in sites[Pg 579] that required considerable movement over open areas of the ground surface.

For several months two individuals of Eurycea longicauda were kept in with A. hardii. Foraging of these two plethodontids is nearly identical, but the tongue of an adult Eurycea can be extended somewhat more than one-half inch in capturing flies; for A. hardii this distance is usually less than one-quarter inch. The relatively short tongue of A. hardii can be correlated with its life in restricted, subsurface chambers, where prey most frequently is close to salamanders; E. longicauda inhabits significantly more open sites.

Parasites

Thirty of the adult Aneides collected were examined for parasites; most were parasitized by two species of nematodes, Oswaldocruzia sp. and Thelandros sp. The former is found in the anterior part of the small intestine and occasionally in the stomach, and the latter occurs in the rectum. There were no gross intestinal pathological changes in the salamanders resulting from parasitism. In fact, no pathological or structural abnormalities were noted in any of the salamanders examined. We believe the two nematodes are well-tolerated by the salamander.

Table 2.—Occurrence of Parasitic Nematodes in Aneides hardii

  Per cent
of
salamanders
infected
Number of nematodes
per host
Per cent of nematodes that
were immature
range mean July Aug.-Sept.
Oswaldocruzia sp. 83 2-15 3.6 100  20 
Thelandros sp. 90 1-17 3.3 64.6 5.7

The numerical and temporal occurrence of the nematodes is summarized in Table 2. It should be noted that of the 17 worms constituting the maximum infection by Thelandros, only one was an adult worm; the maximum number of adult Thelandros in any one host was five. Similarly, the heaviest Oswaldocruzia infection, 15 worms, consisted of immature individuals; the maximum number of adult worms in any one host was ten.

The monthly variation in the relative occurrence of young stages versus adult in both nematodes (Table 2) suggests that the parasites[Pg 580] are eliminated from hosts sometime in the long period, late September to early June, when A. hardii exists subterraneously; the worms thus would be reacquired annually when the salamanders resumed living on the "surface" or near the surface. Table 2 shows that the majority of the worms are immature (100 per cent, in Oswaldocruzia) in samples taken in July. Additionally, all but one individual of those constituting the 20 per cent occurring as immature Oswaldocruzia in the period August to September were actually collected in early August. These were found in one salamander, and this constituted the heaviest infection for the period; crowding effects may have led to retardation of development of the worms.

If it is true that parasites are reacquired each spring—we assume that no temperature factors or immune reactions are delaying development of the worms, and no unusually long external ovic or free-living phase is a necessary part of their life-history—then the host-parasite data can be used as a basis for hypothesizing about the winter life of the salamander. During "surface" life the incidence of parasitism is high (90 per cent and 83 per cent: see Table 2), indicating that salamanders are readily invaded in times of activity. Salamanders examined in September were all parasitized and probably carried nematodes with them into their winter retreats. This part of their habitat should thus be contaminated with infective stages of both parasites. Yet the salamanders seem to become re-infected when the period of summer activity starts (note the high incidence of immature parasites in salamanders taken in July); therefore, the salamanders lose their worms in winter. This suggests that during their subterranean life salamanders are inactive, and avoid ingestion of infective stages of the parasites. A fairly complete hibernation such as we suppose they undergo has been reported by Szymanski (1914) for Salamandra on the basis of kymographic records of movement.

Characteristics of Breeding

Sex-ratio

Tables 3 and 4 show the distribution of sexes for two subsections of our sample. The ratio of males to females in the total sample was nearly 1:1. There were differences in ratios between the three general localities: the two northerly sites had fewer females than males, when compared with the Cloudcroft samples. This is true for the samples of adults, but not for the juveniles, where[Pg 581] in each instance the females predominated. We cannot absolutely explain these differences in ratios. Possibly the data on adults reflect different patterns of activity among the sexes so that adult females are simply not present in numbers where we looked for them. They could be located underground, in connection with "incubating" duties; if this is true it would account for the fact that so few egg-clusters have been found in logs.

Table 3.—Sex Ratios in Aneides hardii, Total Sample

Locality Number
of
males
Number
of
females
Ratio of
males to
females
Capitan Mountains 35 31 100:87
Sierra Blanca 28 21 100:75
Sacramentos, 1958 23 20 100:121
Sacramentos, '56-'57 34 43 100:126
All 120 123 1:1

Table 4.—Sex Ratios in Aneides hardii, Adults

Locality Number
of
males
Number
of
females
Ratio of
males to
females
Capitan Mountains 35 19 100:54
Sierra Blanca 22 7 100:32
Sacramentos, 1958 15 14 100:93
Sacramentos, '56-'57 22 16 100:73

[Pg 582]

Age-ratio

The data in Table 5 show adult salamanders to outnumber young at each collecting locality. This is probably not an accurate reflection of actual age composition in this species. Yet, we obtained the same general result in all three years of the study. We assume, therefore, that young were located where we could not catch many of them; probably they were underground. Sites of hatching and of the activities of early life would thus occur where we think the bulk of eggs are laid.

Table 5.—Age Ratios, Adults-juveniles

Locality Number
of
adults
  Number
of
juveniles
Ratio of
adults to
juveniles
Capitan Mountains 57 15 100:26
Sierra Blanca 30 22 100:73
Sacramentos, 1958 42 30 100:71
Sacramentos, '56-'57 46 35 100:76
All 175 102 100:58

For purposes of this study we had only to age the individuals into adult and subadult classes. The criterion for adult status was breeding capability. A five-millimeter testis was the smallest size found in individuals that probably bred, and all of these were 40 mm. or more in snout-vent length. We arbitrarily considered individuals smaller than 40 mm. to be subadult. This probably does injustice to reality (females were treated the same way), but it should be noted that any error introduced in this way was almost certain to have increased the number of "subadults" in the samples. Thus, the hypothesis above based on age-ratios is not automatically invalid because of improper aging.

Timing of the breeding season

The time in which egg-clusters are deposited is a good rough index to events in the breeding cycle. We found four egg-clusters, one on July 14, 1957, and three on July 27, 1957; the only other eggs taken to date were found in late August (Lowe, 1950:94). Thus, courtship could occur in June, oviposition in July and August, and hatching from August to September. Actually, it is likely that the season is more restricted in time for any one year. Lowe's find was made in a year in which the summer rains were late, beginning in late July (Stebbins, 1951:137), whereas ours were made in a year having abundant and relatively early rainfall, beginning in late June. Microclimatic humidity is of extreme importance to both the salamanders and their food.

We suppose a great deal of breeding activity takes place underground; the chronology of events in such sites may bear no close relationship to those occurring at the surface, yet it is likely that a close parallel would be found. Breeding activities are ordinarily associated in time with greatest food abundance.[Pg 583]

Clutch-size

By clutch-size we refer to the number of eggs in laid clusters. We collected clutches of six, four, four and one; adding one more of three (Lowe, op. cit.) gives an average of 3.6 eggs per cluster; the average is 4.2 eggs if our clutch of one is discarded on the grounds it was incomplete.

For comparison we have listed (Table 6) clutch-sizes for some other plethodontids. It should be noted that these numbers refer only to eggs deposited in clusters, and not to large ovarian eggs. Thus, Aneides hardii has the lowest range in clutch-size of any North American plethodontid on record. It has been noted in other species that low clutch-size is correlated with low productivity, slow population turnover, and long average life-expectancy (Lack, 1954:103-105; Pitelka and Johnston, MS). If this is the case with this salamander, several other features in its environment and habits would tend to reinforce such population structure: the animals are exceedingly well-concealed (they were first described only 17 years ago [Taylor, 1941]), apparently have few natural enemies (one garter snake [Thamnophis] was collected within the habitat of the salamander in three years), apparently have few and benign parasites, and abundant and readily available food.

Table 6.—Ranges and Mean Values of Clutch-sizes in Salamanders of the North American Plethodontidae[1]

Range Mean
Desmognathus spp.[2] 11-40 20
Leurognathus marmorata 28
Plethodon cinereus 3-13 9
Plethodon spp. 8-18 13
Ensatina eschscholtzii 12-14 13
Hemidactylium scutatum 30
Batrachoseps spp. 7-74
Aneides hardii[3] 1-6 3.6
Aneides spp. 7-19 13
Stereochilus marginatus 57
Pseudotriton ruber 72
Manculus quadridigitatus 3-48

[1] From Bishop (1947) and Stebbins (1951).

[2] Clusters of one and two occasionally found in D. ochrophaeus.

[3] This study, and from Lowe (1950).[Pg 584]

Eggs and "incubation"

Our information concerning eggs essentially duplicates that already reported (see Stebbins, 1951). All egg clusters that we found were in small chambers within decomposing fir logs. In each instance the eggs were suspended from the roofs of the chambers. The clutch of six eggs was a compact mass, and the individual suspensory cables of the eggs were intertwined and fused with one another. The clutches of four eggs, although they too were compact clusters, had each suspensory pedicel distinct from the others. The surface of the eggs was lightly moist, but did not glisten with water, and each egg was completely free of the others. The outer coat of jelly of the fresh eggs measured about 6.4 by 5.7 mm. as they hung suspended; sizes were uniform and no egg was notably smaller or larger than the others.

We attempted to keep eggs artificially, but mold destroyed them after 12 days. We had difficulty keeping them wet without inundating them, for the climate at Las Cruces, New Mexico, where we kept the eggs, is exceedingly dry in summer. Until death, embryos were active and responsive to disturbances around them. This was at a time when the limb buds could not be detected and when the external gills were evident only under close scrutiny.

Two times we found adult female salamanders in the chambers with the egg clusters. The other two egg clutches seemingly had no attendant adult, but our method of going through a log was such that we could easily have alarmed any attendant animal well before we found the eggs, allowing time for the adult to move away from the eggs. We presume that incubation, so-called, in A. hardii is similar to that found in other plethodontids (see, for example, Gordon, 1952:683). Our findings on the conditions of the stomachs of these attendant adults have been outlined above ("Food and Foraging"). Our limited data suggest that only females are found in chambers with eggs.

Summary

The montane relict plethodontid Aneides hardii was studied in the field and laboratory in 1956-1958. Food items detected in a small sample of stomachs are listed tabularly. Two roundworms were found to parasitize the guts of the salamanders; the parasitism looks to be benign. Subterranean winter inactivity is thought to be an integral part of the salamanders' lives, and is suggested in part[Pg 585] by the life cycles of the worms. Summer activity appears to occur at the ground surface in logs and talus, and underground; the latter site is suggested by certain ratios obtained in the samples, showing adults to outnumber young and males to outnumber females. The season for egg deposition seems to be in July and August. Clutch-size is lower than for any other plethodontid on record. "Incubation" of eggs apparently parallels that characteristic of other plethodontids.

Literature Cited

Bishop, S. C.
1947. Handbook of salamanders. Ithaca, Comstock. xiv + 555 pp.
Gordon, R. E.
1952. A contribution to the life history and ecology of the plethodontid salamander Aneides aeneus (Cope and Packard). Amer. Midl. Nat., 47:666-701.
Lack, D.
1954. The natural regulation of animal numbers. Oxford, Clarendon, viii + 343 pp.
Lowe, C. H., Jr.
1950. The systematic status of the salamander Plethodon hardii, with a discussion of biogeographic problems in Aneides. Copeia, 1950(2):92-99.
Stebbins, R. C.
1951. Amphibians of western North America. Berkeley, Univ. Calif, xviii + 539 pp.
Szymanski, J. S.
1914. Eine Methode zur Untersuchung der Ruhe- und Aktivitätsperioden bei Tieren. Arch. ges. Physiol., 158:343-385.
Taylor, E. H.
1941. A new plethodont salamander from New Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 54:77-79.

Transmitted May 11, 1959.

27-9040

Transcriber's Notes:

Changed "vestigal" to "vestigial" on page 578: vestigal-winged flies.

Changed "inmature" to "immature" in Table 2: nematodes that were inmature.

Changed "auomatically" to "automatically" on page 582: not auomatically invalid.

Changed "Syzmanski" to "Szymanski" in Literature Cited on page 585.






End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Natural History of the Salamander,
Aneides hardii, by Richard F. Johnston and Gerhard A. Schad

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAT. HIST. SALAMANDER (ANEIDES HARDII) ***

***** This file should be named 31240-h.htm or 31240-h.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/4/31240/

Produced by Chris Curnow, Stephen Sentoff, Joseph Cooper
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net


Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.



*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
http://gutenberg.net/license).


Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works

1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net

1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.net),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
     License.  You must require such a user to return or
     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
     Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
     of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.


Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.


Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://pglaf.org

For additional contact information:
     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
     Chief Executive and Director
     gbnewby@pglaf.org


Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://pglaf.org

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations.  To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate


Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.

Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.


Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.


Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

     http://www.gutenberg.net

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.